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Water security

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</style><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:392px;max-width:392px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:194px;max-width:194px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:144px;overflow:hidden"></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:194px;max-width:194px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:144px;overflow:hidden"></div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:207px;max-width:207px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:134px;overflow:hidden"></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:181px;max-width:181px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:134px;overflow:hidden"></div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flex"><div class="thumbcaption">Water security has many different aspects: a communal tap for <a href="Water_supply" title="Water supply">water supply</a> in <a href="Soweto" title="Soweto">Soweto</a>, South Africa; residents standing in flood water in <a href="Kampala" title="Kampala">Kampala</a>, Uganda; <a href="Water_pollution" title="Water pollution">water pollution</a> can lead to <a href="Eutrophication" title="Eutrophication">eutrophication</a>, <a href="Harmful_algal_blooms" class="mw-redirect" title="Harmful algal blooms">harmful algal blooms</a> and <a href="Fish_kill" title="Fish kill">fish kills</a>; the town of <a href="Farina%2C_South_Australia" title="Farina, South Australia">Farina</a> in <a href="South_Australia" title="South Australia">South Australia</a> abandoned due to years of drought and dust storms.</div></div></div></div>

The aim of water security is to maximize the benefits of water for humans and ecosystems. The second aim is to limit the risks of destructive impacts of water to an acceptable level.<a href="#cite_note-Sadoff-2020-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-Grey-2007-2">[2]</a> These risks include too much water (<a href="Flood" title="Flood">flood</a>), too little water (<a href="Drought" title="Drought">drought</a> and <a href="Water_scarcity" title="Water scarcity">water scarcity</a>), and poor quality (<a href="Water_pollution" title="Water pollution">polluted</a>) water.<a href="#cite_note-Sadoff-2020-1">[1]</a> People who live with a high level of water security always have access to "an acceptable quantity and quality of water for health, livelihood, and production".<a href="#cite_note-Grey-2007-2">[2]</a> For example, access to water, sanitation, and hygiene services is one part of water security.<a href="#cite_note-REACH-2020-3">[3]</a> Some organizations use the term "water security" more narrowly, referring only to <a href="Water_supply" title="Water supply">water supply</a> aspects.

Decision makers and water managers aim to reach water security goals that address multiple concerns. These outcomes can include increasing economic and social well-being while reducing risks tied to water.<a href="#cite_note-Hoekstra-4">[4]</a> There are linkages and <a href="Trade-off" title="Trade-off">trade-offs</a> between the different outcomes.<a href="#cite_note-REACH-2020-3">[3]</a>: 13 Planners often consider water security effects for varied groups when they design climate change reduction strategies.<a href="#cite_note-Murgatroyd-2021-5">[5]</a>: 19–21

Three main factors determine how difficult or easy it is for a society to sustain its water security. These include the <a href="Hydrology" title="Hydrology">hydrologic</a> environment, the socio-economic environment, and future changes due to the <a href="Effects_of_climate_change" title="Effects of climate change">effects of climate change</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Sadoff-2020-1">[1]</a> Decision makers may assess water security risks at varied levels. These range from the household to community, city, basin, country and region.<a href="#cite_note-REACH-2020-3">[3]</a>: 11

The opposite of water security is water insecurity.<a href="#cite_note-UNICEF-2021-6">[6]</a>: 5 Water insecurity is a growing threat to societies.<a href="#cite_note-Gleick-2020-7">[7]</a>: 4 The main factors contributing to water insecurity are <a href="Water_scarcity" title="Water scarcity">water scarcity</a>, <a href="Water_pollution" title="Water pollution">water pollution</a> and low water quality due to climate change impacts. Others include <a href="Poverty" title="Poverty">poverty</a>, destructive forces of water, and <a href="Disaster" title="Disaster">disasters</a> that stem from <a href="Natural_hazard" class="mw-redirect" title="Natural hazard">natural hazards</a>. <a href="Climate_change" title="Climate change">Climate change</a> affects water security in many ways. Changing rainfall patterns, including droughts, can have a big impact on water availability. Flooding can worsen water quality. Stronger storms can damage infrastructure, especially in the <a href="Global_South" class="mw-redirect" title="Global South">Global South</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Caretta-2022-8">[8]</a>: 660

There are different ways to deal with water insecurity. Science and engineering approaches can increase the water supply or make water use more efficient. Financial and economic tools can include a <a href="Safety_net_program" class="mw-redirect" title="Safety net program">safety net</a> to ensure access for poorer people. Management tools such as demand caps can improve water security.<a href="#cite_note-Gleick-2020-7">[7]</a>: 16 They work on strengthening institutions and information flows. They may also improve water quality management, and increase investment in <a href="Water_infrastructure" class="mw-redirect" title="Water infrastructure">water infrastructure</a>. Improving the <a href="Climate_resilience" title="Climate resilience">climate resilience</a> of water and hygiene services is important. These efforts help to reduce poverty and achieve <a href="Sustainable_development" title="Sustainable development">sustainable development</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Grey-2007-2">[2]</a>

There is no single method to measure water security.<a href="#cite_note-Caretta-2022-8">[8]</a>: 562 Metrics of water security roughly fall into two groups. This includes those that are based on experiences versus metrics that are based on resources. The former mainly focus on measuring the water experiences of households and human well-being. The latter tend to focus on freshwater stores or water resources security.<a href="#cite_note-Octavianti-2021-9">[9]</a>

The <a href="IPCC_Sixth_Assessment_Report" title="IPCC Sixth Assessment Report">IPCC Sixth Assessment Report</a> found that increasing weather and climate extreme events have exposed millions of people to acute <a href="Food_security" title="Food security">food insecurity</a> and reduced water security. Scientists have observed the largest impacts in Africa, Asia, Central and South America, Small Islands and the Arctic.<a href="#cite_note-IPCC-2022-10">[10]</a>: 9 The report predicted that global warming of 2 °C would expose roughly 1-4 billion people to water stress. It finds 1.5-2.5 billion people live in areas exposed to water scarcity.<a href="#cite_note-IPCC-2022-10">[10]</a>: 660 <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886046785">

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Definitions">Definitions</h2></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Broad_definition">Broad definition</h3></div>

There are various definitions for the term water security.<a href="#cite_note-UN-Water2-11">[11]</a><a href="#cite_note-WaterAid-12">[12]</a>: 5 It emerged as a concept in the 21st century. It is broader than the absence of <a href="Water_scarcity" title="Water scarcity">water scarcity</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Sadoff-2020-1">[1]</a> It differs from the concepts of <a href="Food_security" title="Food security">food security</a> and <a href="Energy_security" title="Energy security">energy security</a>. Whereas those concepts cover reliable access to food or energy, water security covers not only the absence of water but also its presence when there is too much of it.<a href="#cite_note-Grey-2007-2">[2]</a>

One definition of water security is "the reliable availability of an acceptable quantity and quality of water for health, livelihoods and production, coupled with an acceptable level of <a href="Water_risk" class="mw-redirect" title="Water risk">water-related risks</a>".<a href="#cite_note-Grey-2007-2">[2]</a>

A similar definition of water security by <a href="UN-Water" title="UN-Water">UN-Water</a> is: "the capacity of a population to safeguard sustainable access to adequate quantities of acceptable quality water for sustaining livelihoods, human well-being, and socio-economic development, for ensuring protection against water-borne pollution and water-related <a href="Natural_disaster" title="Natural disaster">disasters</a>, and for preserving ecosystems in a climate of peace and political stability."<a href="#cite_note-UN-Water2-11">[11]</a>: 1 <a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a>

<a href="World_Resources_Institute" title="World Resources Institute">World Resources Institute</a> also gave a similar definition in 2020. "For purposes of this report, we define water security as the capacity of a population to

<ul><li>safeguard sustainable access to adequate quantities of acceptable quality water for sustaining livelihoods, human well-being, and socioeconomic development;</li>

<li>protect against <a href="Water_pollution" title="Water pollution">water pollution</a> and water-related disasters; and</li>

<li>preserve ecosystems, upon which clean water availability and other ecosystem services depend."<a href="#cite_note-Gleick-2020-7">[7]</a>: 17 </li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Narrower_definition_with_a_focus_on_water_supply">Narrower definition with a focus on water supply</h3></div>

Some organizations use water security in a more specific sense to refer to water supply only. They do not consider the water-related risks of too much water. For example, the definition of <a href="WaterAid" title="WaterAid">WaterAid</a> in 2012 focuses on water supply issues. They defined water security as "reliable access to water of sufficient quantity and quality for basic human needs, small-scale livelihoods and local ecosystem services, coupled with a well managed risk of water-related disasters".<a href="#cite_note-UN-Water2-11">[11]</a>: 5 The <a href="World_Water_Council" class="mw-redirect" title="World Water Council">World Water Council</a> also uses this more specific approach with a focus on water supply. "Water security refers to the availability of water, in adequate quantity and quality, to sustain all these needs together (social and economic sectors, as well as the larger needs of the planet's ecosystems) – without exceeding its ability to renew."<a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a><a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Relationship_with_WASH_and_IWRM">Relationship with WASH and IWRM</h3></div>

<a href="WASH" title="WASH">WASH</a> (water, sanitation and hygiene) is an important concept when in discussions of water security. Access to WASH services is one part of achieving water security.<a href="#cite_note-REACH-2020-3">[3]</a> The relationship works both ways. To be sustainable, WASH services need to address water security issues.<a href="#cite_note-WI-2017-16">[16]</a>: 4 For example WASH relies on water resources that are part of the <a href="Water_cycle" title="Water cycle">water cycle</a>. But climate change has many <a href="Effects_of_climate_change_on_the_water_cycle" title="Effects of climate change on the water cycle">impacts on the water cycle</a> which can threaten water security.<a href="#cite_note-UN-Water2-11">[11]</a>: vII There is also growing competition for water. This reduces the availability of water resources in many areas in the world.<a href="#cite_note-WI-2017-16">[16]</a>: 4

Water security incorporates ideas and concepts to do with the <a href="Sustainability" title="Sustainability">sustainability</a>, integration and adaptiveness of <a href="Water_resource_management" class="mw-redirect" title="Water resource management">water resource management</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Varady-2021-17">[17]</a><a href="#cite_note-Hoekstra-4">[4]</a> In the past, experts used terms such as <a href="Integrated_water_resources_management" class="mw-redirect" title="Integrated water resources management">integrated water resources management</a> (IWRM) or sustainable water management for this.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Related_concepts">Related concepts</h2></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Water_risk">Water risk</h3></div>

Water risk refers to the possibility of problems to do with water. Examples are water scarcity, water stress, flooding, infrastructure decay and drought.<a href="#cite_note-CEO-2014-18">[18]</a>: 4 There exists an inverse relationship between water risk and water security. This means as water risk increases, water security decreases. Water risk is complex and multilayered. It includes risks flooding and drought. These can lead to infrastructure failure and worsen hunger.<a href="#cite_note-Bonnafous-19">[19]</a> When these disasters take place, they result in water scarcity or other problems. The potential economic effects of water risk are important to note. Water risks threaten entire industries. Examples are the food and beverage sector, agriculture, oil and gas and utilities. Agriculture uses 69% of total freshwater in the world. So this industry is very vulnerable to water stress.<a href="#cite_note-Stanley-20">[20]</a>

Risk is a combination of hazard, exposure and vulnerability.<a href="#cite_note-Hoekstra-4">[4]</a> Examples of hazards are droughts, floods and decline in quality. Bad infrastructure and bad governance lead to high exposure to risk.

The financial sector is becoming more aware of the potential impacts of water risk and the need for its proper management. By 2025, water risk will threaten $145 trillion in assets under management.<a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a>

To control water risk, companies can develop water risk management plans.<a href="#cite_note-Bonnafous-19">[19]</a> Stakeholders within financial markets can use these plans to measure company environmental, social and governance (ESG) performance. They can then identify leaders in water risk management.<a href="#cite_note-Capital_Media-22">[22]</a><a href="#cite_note-Stanley-20">[20]</a> The <a href="World_Resources_Institute" title="World Resources Institute">World Resources Institute</a> has developed an online water data platform named Aqueduct for risk assessment and water management. China Water Risk is a nonprofit dedicated to understanding and managing water risk in China.<a href="#cite_note-Veeck2020-23">[23]</a><a href="#cite_note-Toh2011-11-14-24">[24]</a> The <a href="World_Wildlife_Fund" class="mw-redirect" title="World Wildlife Fund">World Wildlife Fund</a> has a Water Risk Filter that helps companies assess and respond to water risk with scenarios for 2030 and 2050.<a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a>

Understanding risk is part of water security policy. But it is also important to take <a href="Social_equity" title="Social equity">social equity</a> considerations more into account.<a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a>

There is no wholly accepted theory or <a href="Mathematical_model" title="Mathematical model">mathematical model</a> for determining or managing water risk.<a href="#cite_note-REACH-2020-3">[3]</a>: 13 Instead, managers use a range of theories, models and technologies to understand the <a href="Trade-off" title="Trade-off">trade-offs</a> that exist in responding to risk.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Water_conflict">Water conflict</h3></div>

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</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable dablink excerpt-hat selfref">This section is an excerpt from <a href="Water_conflict" title="Water conflict">Water conflict</a>.[<a class="external text external" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_conflict&action=edit">edit</a>]</div><div class="excerpt">

<a href="Water_conflict" title="Water conflict">Water conflict</a> typically refers to violence or disputes associated with access to, or control of, water resources, or the use of water or water systems as weapons or casualties of conflicts. The term water war is colloquially used in media for some disputes over water, and often is more limited to describing a conflict between countries, states, or groups over <a href="Water_right" title="Water right">the rights</a> to access <a href="Water_resources" title="Water resources">water resources</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Water_conflict_Allianz-28">[28]</a><a href="#cite_note-Water_conflict_WWilson-29">[29]</a> The <a href="United_Nations" title="United Nations">United Nations</a> recognizes that water disputes result from opposing interests of water users, public or private.<a href="#cite_note-30">[30]</a> A wide range of water conflicts appear throughout history, though they are rarely traditional wars waged over water alone.<a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a> Instead, water has long been a source of tension and one of the causes for conflicts. Water conflicts arise for several reasons, including territorial disputes, a fight for resources, and strategic advantage.<a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a>

Water conflicts can occur on the intrastate and interstate levels. Interstate conflicts occur between two or more countries that share a transboundary water source, such as a river, sea, or groundwater basin. For example, the <a href="Middle_East" title="Middle East">Middle East</a> has only 1% of the world's <a href="Fresh_water" title="Fresh water">fresh water</a> shared among 5% of the world's population and most of the rivers cross international borders.<a href="#cite_note-Water_conflict_BBC-33">[33]</a> Intrastate conflicts take place between two or more parties in the same country, such as conflicts between farmers and urban water users.</div></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Desired_outcomes">Desired outcomes</h2></div>

There are three groups of water security outcomes. These include economic, environmental and equity (or social) outcomes.<a href="#cite_note-Sadoff-2020-1">[1]</a> Outcomes are things that happen or people would want to see happen as a result of policy and management:

<ul><li>Economic outcomes: Sustainable growth which takes changing water needs and threats into account.<a href="#cite_note-REACH-2020-3">[3]</a> Sustainable growth includes job creation, increased productivity and standards of living.</li></ul>

<ul><li>Environmental outcomes: Quality and availability of water for the <a href="Ecosystem_service" title="Ecosystem service">ecosystems services</a> that depend on this water resource. Loss of freshwater <a href="Biodiversity" title="Biodiversity">biodiversity</a> and depletion of <a href="Groundwater" title="Groundwater">groundwater</a> are examples of negative environmental outcomes.<a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a><a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a></li>

<li>Equity or social outcomes: Inclusive services so that consumers, industry and agriculture can access safe, reliable, sufficient and affordable water. These also mean they can dispose of <a href="Wastewater" title="Wastewater">wastewater</a> safely. This area includes gender issues, empowerment, participation and <a href="Accountability" title="Accountability">accountability</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Sadoff-2020-1">[1]</a></li></ul>

There are four major focus areas for water security and its outcomes. It is about using water to increase economic and social welfare, move towards long-term sustainability or reduce risks tied to water.<a href="#cite_note-Hoekstra-4">[4]</a> Decision makers and water managers must consider the linkages and trade-offs between the varied types of outcomes.<a href="#cite_note-REACH-2020-3">[3]</a>: 13

Improving water security is a key factor to achieve growth, development that is sustainable and reduce poverty.<a href="#cite_note-Grey-2007-2">[2]</a> Water security is also about <a href="Social_justice" title="Social justice">social justice</a> and fair distribution of environmental benefits and harms.<a href="#cite_note-36">[36]</a> Development that is sustainable can help reduce poverty and increase living standards. This is most likely to benefit those affected by the impacts of insecure <a href="Water_resources" title="Water resources">water resources</a> in the region, especially women and children.

Water security is important for attaining most of the 17 United Nations <a href="Sustainable_Development_Goals" title="Sustainable Development Goals">Sustainable Development Goals</a> (SDGs). This is because access to adequate and safe water is a precondition for meeting many of the individual goals.<a href="#cite_note-Caretta-2022-8">[8]</a>: 4–8 It is also important for attaining development that is resilient to climate change.<a href="#cite_note-Caretta-2022-8">[8]</a>: 4–7 Planners take note of water security outcomes for various groups in society when they design strategies for climate change adaptation.<a href="#cite_note-REACH-2020-3">[3]</a>: 19–21

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Determining_factors">Determining factors</h2></div>

Three main factors determine the ability of a society to sustain water security:<a href="#cite_note-Grey-2007-2">[2]</a>

<ol><li>Hydrologic environment</li>

<li>Socio-economic environment</li>

<li>Changes in the future environment (due to the <a href="Effects_of_climate_change" title="Effects of climate change">effects of climate change</a>)</li></ol>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Hydrologic_environment">Hydrologic environment</h3></div>

The hydrologic environment is important for water security. The term hydrologic environment refers to the "absolute level of water resource availability". But it also refers to how much it varies in time and location. Inter-annual means from one year to the next, Intra-annual means from one season to the next. It is possible to refer to location as spatial distribution.<a href="#cite_note-Grey-2007-2">[2]</a> Scholars distinguish between a hydrologic environment that is easy to manage and one that is difficult.<a href="#cite_note-Grey-2007-2">[2]</a>

An easy to manage hydrologic environment would be one with low rainfall variability. In this case rain is distributed throughout the year and perennial river flows sustained by groundwater base flows. For example, many of the world's <a href="Developed_country" title="Developed country">industrialized nations</a> have a hydrologic environment that they can manage quite easily. This has helped them achieve water security early in their development.<a href="#cite_note-Grey-2007-2">[2]</a>

A difficult to manage hydrologic environment is one with absolute water scarcity such as deserts or low-lying lands prone to severe flood risk. Regions where rainfall is very variable from one season to the next, or regions where rainfall varies a lot from one year to the next are also likely to face water security challenges. The term for this is high inter-annual climate variability. An example would be East Africa, where there have been prolonged droughts every two to three years since 1999.<a href="#cite_note-37">[37]</a> Most of the world's developing countries have challenges in managing hydrologies and have not achieved water security. This is not a coincidence.<a href="#cite_note-Grey-2007-2">[2]</a>

The poverty and hydrology hypothesis states that regions with a difficult hydrology remain poor because the respective governments have not been able to make the large investments necessary to achieve water security. Examples of such regions would be those with rainfall variability within one year and across several years. This leads to water insecurity which constrains economic growth.<a href="#cite_note-Grey-2007-2">[2]</a> There is a statistical link between increased changes in rainfall patterns and lower per capita incomes.<a href="#cite_note-38">[38]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Socio-economic_environment">Socio-economic environment</h3></div>

Relative levels of economic development and equality or inequality are strong determinants of community and household scale water security. Whilst the poverty and hydrology hypothesis suggests that there is a link between poverty and difficult hydrologies, there are many examples of "difficult hydrologies" that have not (yet) resulted in poverty and water insecurity.<a href="#cite_note-Grey-2007-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-39">[39]</a>

Social and economic inequalities are strong drivers of water insecurity, especially at the community and household scales. Gender, race and caste inequalities have all been linked to differential access to water services such as drinking water and sanitation. In particular women and girls frequently have less access to economic and social opportunities as a directly consequence of being primarily responsible for meeting household water needs. The entire journey from water source to point of use is fraught with hazards largely faced by women and girls.<a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a> There is strong evidence that improving access to water and sanitation is a good way of addressing such inequalities.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Climate_change">Climate change</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="Effects_of_climate_change_on_the_water_cycle" title="Effects of climate change on the water cycle">Effects of climate change on the water cycle</a> and <a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Reduced_water_quality_due_to_climate_change_impacts">Water security § Reduced water quality due to climate change impacts</a></div>Impacts of <a href="Climate_change" title="Climate change">climate change</a> that are tied to water, affect people's water security on a daily basis. They include more frequent and intense heavy precipitation which affects the frequency, size and timing of floods.<a href="#cite_note-41">[41]</a> Also droughts can alter the total amount of <a href="Freshwater" class="mw-redirect" title="Freshwater">freshwater</a> and cause a decline in <a href="Groundwater" title="Groundwater">groundwater</a> storage, and reduction in <a href="Groundwater_recharge" title="Groundwater recharge">groundwater recharge</a>.<a href="#cite_note-42">[42]</a> Reduction in water quality due to extreme events can also occur.<a href="#cite_note-Caretta-2022-8">[8]</a>: 558 Faster melting of glaciers can also occur.<a href="#cite_note-43">[43]</a>

Global climate change will probably make it more complex and expensive to ensure water security.<a href="#cite_note-Grey-2007-2">[2]</a> It creates new threats and <a href="Climate_change_adaptation" title="Climate change adaptation">adaptation challenges</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Sadoff-2020-1">[1]</a> This is because climate change leads to increased hydrological variability and extremes. Climate change has many <a href="Effects_of_climate_change_on_the_water_cycle" title="Effects of climate change on the water cycle">impacts on the water cycle</a>. These result in higher climatic and hydrological variability, which can threaten water security.<a href="#cite_note-UN-Water2-11">[11]</a>: vII Changes in the water cycle threaten existing and future water infrastructure. It will be harder to plan investments for future water infrastructure as there are so many uncertainties about future variability for the water cycle.<a href="#cite_note-Sadoff-2020-1">[1]</a> This makes societies more exposed to risks of extreme events linked to water and therefore reduces water security.<a href="#cite_note-UN-Water2-11">[11]</a>: vII

It is difficult to predict the effects of climate change on national and local levels. Water security will be affected by <a href="Sea_level_rise" title="Sea level rise">sea level rise</a> in low lying coastal areas while populations dependent on snowmelt as their water source will be affected by the recession of glaciers and mountain snow.<a href="#cite_note-WaterAid-12">[12]</a>: 21

Future climate change must be viewed in context of other existing challenges for water security. Other challenges existing climate variability in areas closer to the equator, population growth and increased demand for water resources. Others include political challenges, increased disaster exposure due to settlement in hazard-prone areas, and environmental degradation.<a href="#cite_note-WaterAid-12">[12]</a>: 22 Water demand for <a href="Irrigation" title="Irrigation">irrigation</a> in agriculture will increase due to climate change. This is because evaporation rates and the rate of water loss from crops will be higher due to rising temperatures.<a href="#cite_note-Gleick-2020-7">[7]</a>: 4

Climate factors have a major effect on water security as various levels. Geographic variability in water availability, reliability of rainfall and vulnerability to droughts, floods and <a href="Cyclone" title="Cyclone">cyclones</a> are inherent hazards that affect development opportunities. These play out at international to intra-basin scales. At local scales, <a href="Social_vulnerability" title="Social vulnerability">social vulnerability</a> is a factor that increases the risks to water security, no matter the cause.<a href="#cite_note-Murgatroyd-2021-5">[5]</a>: 6 For example, people affected by poverty may have less ability to cope with climate shocks.<a href="#cite_note-Murgatroyd-2021-5">[5]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Challenges_and_threats">Challenges and threats</h2></div>

There are many factors that contribute to low water security. Some examples are:<a href="#cite_note-Gleick-2020-7">[7]</a>: 4 <a href="#cite_note-UNICEF-2021-6">[6]</a>: 9

<ul><li>Water scarcity: Water demand exceeds supply in many regions of the world. This can be due to population growth, higher living standards, general economic expansion and/or greater quantities of water used in agriculture for irrigation.</li>

<li>Increasing water pollution and low levels of <a href="Wastewater_treatment" title="Wastewater treatment">wastewater treatment</a>, which is making local water unusable.</li>

<li>Poor planning of water use, poor water management and misuse. These can cause <a href="Groundwater" title="Groundwater">groundwater</a> levels to drop, rivers and lakes to dry out, and local ecosystems to collapse.</li>

<li><a href="International_waters" title="International waters">Trans-boundary waters</a> and international rivers which belong to several countries. Country borders often do not align with natural <a href="Drainage_divide" title="Drainage divide">watersheds</a>. One reason is that international borders result from boundaries during colonialism.<a href="#cite_note-Grey-2007-2">[2]</a></li>

<li>Climate change. This makes water-related disasters such as droughts and floods more frequent and intense; rising temperatures and sea levels can contaminate freshwater sources.<a href="#cite_note-UNICEF-2021-6">[6]</a>: 9 </li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Water_scarcity">Water scarcity</h3></div>

A major threat to water security is <a href="Water_scarcity" title="Water scarcity">water scarcity</a>. About 27% of the world's population lived in areas affected by water scarcity in the mid-2010s. This number will likely increase to 42% by 2050.<a href="#cite_note-44">[44]</a>

<div class="excerpt-block"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable dablink excerpt-hat selfref">This section is an excerpt from <a href="Water_scarcity" title="Water scarcity">Water scarcity</a>.[<a class="external text external" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_scarcity&action=edit">edit</a>]</div><div class="excerpt">

<a href="Water_scarcity" title="Water scarcity">Water scarcity</a> (closely related to water stress or <a href="Water_crisis_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Water crisis (disambiguation)">water crisis</a>) is the lack of <a href="Fresh_water" title="Fresh water">fresh water</a> <a href="Water_resources" title="Water resources">resources</a> to meet the standard water demand. There are two types of water scarcity. One is physical. The other is economic water scarcity.<a href="#cite_note-Water_scarcity_Caretta-2022a-46">[46]</a>: 560 Physical water scarcity is where there is not enough water to meet all demands. This includes water needed for <a href="Ecosystem" title="Ecosystem">ecosystems</a> to function. Regions with a <a href="Desert_climate" title="Desert climate">desert climate</a> often face physical water scarcity.<a href="#cite_note-Water_scarcity_Rijsberman-2006a-47">[47]</a> <a href="Central_Asia" title="Central Asia">Central Asia</a>, <a href="West_Asia" title="West Asia">West Asia</a>, and <a href="North_Africa" title="North Africa">North Africa</a> are examples of arid areas. Economic water scarcity results from a lack of investment in infrastructure or technology to draw water from rivers, <a href="Aquifer" title="Aquifer">aquifers</a>, or other water sources. It also results from weak human capacity to meet water demand.<a href="#cite_note-Water_scarcity_Caretta-2022a-46">[46]</a>: 560 Many people in <a href="Sub-Saharan_Africa" title="Sub-Saharan Africa">Sub-Saharan Africa</a> are living with economic water scarcity.<a href="#cite_note-Water_scarcity_IWMI-2007-48">[48]</a>: 11

There is enough freshwater available globally and averaged over the year to meet demand. As such, water scarcity is caused by a mismatch between when and where people need water, and when and where it is available.<a href="#cite_note-Water_scarcity_Mekonnen-2016-49">[49]</a> This can happen due to an <a href="Population_growth" title="Population growth">increase in the number of people</a> in a region, changing living conditions and diets, and expansion of <a href="Irrigation" title="Irrigation">irrigated agriculture</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Water_scarcity_Vorosmarty-2000-50">[50]</a><a href="#cite_note-51">[51]</a><a href="#cite_note-Water_scarcity_Liu-2017-52">[52]</a> <a href="Climate_change" title="Climate change">Climate change</a> (including <a href="Droughts" class="mw-redirect" title="Droughts">droughts</a> or <a href="Floods" class="mw-redirect" title="Floods">floods</a>), <a href="Deforestation" title="Deforestation">deforestation</a>, <a href="Water_pollution" title="Water pollution">water pollution</a> and wasteful use of water can also mean there is not enough water.<a href="#cite_note-Water_scarcity_WWF-2013-53">[53]</a> These variations in scarcity may also be a function of prevailing <a href="Economic_policy" title="Economic policy">economic policy</a> and planning approaches.</div></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Water_pollution">Water pollution</h3></div>

Water pollution is a threat to water security. It can affect the supply of drinking water and indirectly contribute to water scarcity.

<div class="excerpt-block"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable dablink excerpt-hat selfref">This section is an excerpt from <a href="Water_pollution" title="Water pollution">Water pollution</a>.[<a class="external text external" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_pollution&action=edit">edit</a>]</div><div class="excerpt">

<a href="Water_pollution" title="Water pollution">Water pollution</a> (or aquatic pollution) is the contamination of <a href="Body_of_water" title="Body of water">water bodies</a>, with a negative impact on their uses.<a href="#cite_note-Water_pollution_Von_Sperling-54">[54]</a>: 6 It is usually a result of human activities. Water bodies include <a href="Lake" title="Lake">lakes</a>, <a href="River" title="River">rivers</a>, <a href="Ocean" title="Ocean">oceans</a>, <a href="Aquifer" title="Aquifer">aquifers</a>, <a href="Reservoir" title="Reservoir">reservoirs</a> and <a href="Groundwater" title="Groundwater">groundwater</a>. Water <a href="Pollution" title="Pollution">pollution</a> results when <a href="Contaminant" class="mw-redirect" title="Contaminant">contaminants</a> mix with these water bodies. Contaminants can come from one of four main sources. These are <a href="Sewage" title="Sewage">sewage</a> discharges, industrial activities, agricultural activities, and urban runoff including <a href="Stormwater" title="Stormwater">stormwater</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Water_pollution_Eckenfelder-55">[55]</a> Water pollution may affect either <a href="Surface_water" title="Surface water">surface water</a> or <a href="Groundwater_pollution" title="Groundwater pollution">groundwater</a>. This form of pollution can lead to many problems. One is the <a href="Environmental_degradation" title="Environmental degradation">degradation</a> of <a href="Aquatic_ecosystems" class="mw-redirect" title="Aquatic ecosystems">aquatic ecosystems</a>. Another is spreading <a href="Waterborne_diseases" class="mw-redirect" title="Waterborne diseases">water-borne diseases</a> when people use polluted water for drinking or <a href="Irrigation" title="Irrigation">irrigation</a>.<a href="#cite_note-56">[56]</a> Water pollution also reduces the <a href="Ecosystem_service" title="Ecosystem service">ecosystem services</a> such as <a href="Drinking_water" title="Drinking water">drinking water</a> provided by the <a href="Water_resources" title="Water resources">water resource</a>.</div></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Reduced_water_quality_due_to_climate_change">Reduced water quality due to climate change</h3></div>

Weather and its related shocks can affect water quality in several ways. These depend on the local climate and context.<a href="#cite_note-Katrina2022-57">[57]</a> Shocks that are linked to weather include water shortages, heavy rain and temperature extremes. They can damage water infrastructure through erosion under heavy rainfall and floods, cause loss of water sources in droughts, and make water quality deteriorate.<a href="#cite_note-Katrina2022-57">[57]</a>

Climate change can reduce lower water quality in several ways:<a href="#cite_note-Caretta-2022-8">[8]</a>: 582

<ul><li>Heavy rainfall can rapidly reduce the water quality in rivers and shallow groundwater. It can affect water quality in reservoirs even if these effects can be slow.<a href="#cite_note-58">[58]</a> Heavy rainfall also impacts groundwater in deeper, unfractured aquifers. But these impacts are less pronounced. Rainfall can increase fecal contamination of water sources.<a href="#cite_note-Katrina2022-57">[57]</a></li>

<li>Floods after heavy rainfalls can mix floodwater with <a href="Wastewater" title="Wastewater">wastewater</a>. Also pollutants can reach water bodies by increased <a href="Surface_runoff" title="Surface runoff">surface runoff</a>.</li>

<li><a href="Groundwater_pollution" title="Groundwater pollution">Groundwater quality may deteriorate</a> due to droughts. The pollution in rivers that feed groundwater becomes less diluted. As groundwater levels drop, rivers may lose direct contact with groundwater.<a href="#cite_note-59">[59]</a></li>

<li>In coastal regions, more saltwater may mix into freshwater <a href="Aquifer" title="Aquifer">aquifers</a> due to <a href="Sea_level_rise" title="Sea level rise">sea level rise</a> and more intense storms.<a href="#cite_note-UN-Water2-11">[11]</a>: 16 <a href="#cite_note-Hoekstra-4">[4]</a> This process is called <a href="Saltwater_intrusion" title="Saltwater intrusion">saltwater intrusion</a>.</li>

<li>Warmer water in lakes, oceans, reservoirs and rivers can cause more <a href="Eutrophication" title="Eutrophication">eutrophication</a>. This results in more frequent <a href="Harmful_algal_bloom" title="Harmful algal bloom">harmful algal blooms</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Caretta-2022-8">[8]</a>: 140 Higher temperatures cause problems for water bodies and <a href="Aquatic_ecosystem" title="Aquatic ecosystem">aquatic ecosystems</a> because warmer water contains less oxygen.<a href="#cite_note-60">[60]</a></li>

<li><a href="Permafrost" title="Permafrost">Permafrost</a> thawing leads to an increased flux of contaminants.<a href="#cite_note-61">[61]</a></li>

<li>Increased meltwater from glaciers may release contaminants.<a href="#cite_note-62">[62]</a> As glaciers shrink or disappear, the positive effect of seasonal meltwater on downstream water quality through dilution is disappearing.<a href="#cite_note-63">[63]</a></li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Poverty">Poverty</h3></div>

People in low-income countries are at greater risk of water insecurity and may also have less resources to mitigate it. This can result in human suffering, sustained poverty, constrained growth and social unrest.<a href="#cite_note-Grey-2007-2">[2]</a>

Food and water insecurity pose significant challenges for numerous individuals across the United States. Strategies employed by households in response to these pressing issues encompass labor intensive methods, such as melting ice, earning wages, and occasionally incurring debt, all aimed at water conservation. Additionally, families may turn to foraging for water-based plants and animals, seeking alternative sources of sustenance. Adjusting consumption patterns becomes imperative, involving the rationing of servings and prioritizing nutritional value, particularly for vulnerable members like small children. The phenomenon of substituting more expensive, nutritious food with cheaper alternatives is also observed.<a href="#cite_note-wutich-64">[64]</a>

Furthermore, individuals may consume from sources considered "stigmatized" by society, such as urine or unfiltered water. Migration emerges as a viable option, with families fostering children to relatives outside famine zones and engaging in seasonal or permanent resettlement. In certain instances, resource preservation involves the challenging decision of abandoning specific family members. This is achieved through withholding resources from non-family members, prioritizing the health of some family members over others, and, in extreme cases, leaving individuals behind. As the climate changes, the impact of food and water insecurity is disproportionately felt, necessitating a re-evaluation of societal misconceptions about those making survival sacrifices. Larger entities, including the government and various organizations, extend assistance based on available resources, highlighting the importance of addressing information gaps in specific data.<a href="#cite_note-wutich-64">[64]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Destructive_forces_of_water">Destructive forces of water</h3></div>

Water can cause large-scale destruction due to its huge power.<a href="#cite_note-Grey-2007-2">[2]</a> This destruction can result from sudden events. Examples are <a href="Tsunami" title="Tsunami">tsunamis</a>, floods or <a href="Landslide" title="Landslide">landslides</a>. Events that happen slowly over time such as <a href="Erosion" title="Erosion">erosion</a>, <a href="Desertification" title="Desertification">desertification</a> or water pollution can also cause destruction.<a href="#cite_note-Grey-2007-2">[2]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other_threats">Other threats</h3></div>

Other threats to water security include:

<ul><li>Disasters caused by <a href="Natural_hazard" class="mw-redirect" title="Natural hazard">natural hazards</a> such as hurricanes, earthquakes, and wildfires. These can damage man-made structures such as dams and fill waterways with debris;</li>

<li>Some <a href="Climate_change_mitigation" title="Climate change mitigation">climate change mitigation</a> measures which need a lot of water. <a href="Bioenergy_with_carbon_capture_and_storage" title="Bioenergy with carbon capture and storage">Bioenergy with carbon capture and storage</a>, <a href="Afforestation" title="Afforestation">afforestation</a> and <a href="Reforestation" title="Reforestation">reforestation</a> may use relatively large amounts of water if done at inappropriate locations.<a href="#cite_note-Caretta-2022-8">[8]</a>: 4–8 The term for this is a high <a href="Water_footprint" title="Water footprint">water footprint</a>.</li>

<li>Terrorism such as water supply terrorism;<a href="#cite_note-DHS-2017-65">[65]</a></li>

<li>Radiation due to a nuclear accident;<a href="#cite_note-DHS-2017-65">[65]</a></li>

<li>New water uses such as <a href="Hydraulic_fracturing" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydraulic fracturing">hydraulic fracturing</a> for energy resources;<a href="#cite_note-66">[66]</a></li>

<li>Armed conflict and migration. Migration can be due to water scarcity at the origin or it can lead to more water scarcity at the target destinations.<a href="#cite_note-UNICEF-2021-6">[6]</a>: 9 </li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Management_approaches">Management approaches</h2></div>

There are different ways to tackle water insecurity.<a href="#cite_note-67">[67]</a> Science and engineering approaches can increase the water supply or make water use more efficient. Financial and economic tools can be used as a <a href="Safety_net_program" class="mw-redirect" title="Safety net program">safety net</a> for poorer people. Higher prices may encourage more investments in water systems. Finally, management tools such as demand caps can improve water security.<a href="#cite_note-Gleick-2020-7">[7]</a>: 16, 104 Decision makers invest in institutions, information flows and infrastructure to achieve a high level of water security.<a href="#cite_note-Sadoff-2020-1">[1]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Investment_decisions">Investment decisions</h3></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Institutions">Institutions</h4></div>

The right institutions are important to improve water security.<a href="#cite_note-Grey-2007-2">[2]</a> Institutions govern how decisions can promote or constrain water security outcomes for the poor.<a href="#cite_note-REACH-2020-3">[3]</a> Strengthening institutions might involve reallocating risks and duties between the state, market and communities in new ways. This can include <a href="Performance-based_budgeting" title="Performance-based budgeting">performance-based models</a>, <a href="Development_impact_bond" title="Development impact bond">development impact bonds</a>, or <a href="Blended_finance" title="Blended finance">blended finance</a> from government, donors and users. These finance mechanisms are set up to work jointly with state, private sector and communities investors.<a href="#cite_note-REACH-2020-3">[3]</a>: 37

<a href="Sustainable_Development_Goal_16" title="Sustainable Development Goal 16">Sustainable Development Goal 16</a> is about peace, justice and strong institutions. It recognizes that strong institutions are a necessary condition for sustainable development, including water security.<a href="#cite_note-REACH-2020-3">[3]</a>: 35

<a href="Drinking_water_quality_standards" title="Drinking water quality standards">Drinking water quality</a> and water pollution are linked. But policymakers often do not address them in a comprehensive way. For example, pollution from industries is often not linked to drinking water quality in developing countries.<a href="#cite_note-REACH-2020-3">[3]</a>: 32 Keeping track of river, groundwater and wastewater is important. It can identify sources of contamination and guide targeted regulatory responses. The <a href="World_Health_Organization" title="World Health Organization">WHO</a> has described <a href="Water_safety_plan" title="Water safety plan">water safety plans</a> as the most effective means of maintaining a safe supply of drinking water to the public.<a href="#cite_note-68">[68]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Information_flows">Information flows</h4></div>

It is important for institutions to have access to information about water. This helps them with their planning and decision-making.<a href="#cite_note-Sadoff-2020-1">[1]</a> It also helps with tracking how accountable and effective policies are. Investments into climate information tools that are appropriate for the local context are useful.<a href="#cite_note-Murgatroyd-2021-5">[5]</a>: 59 They cover a wide range of temporal and spatial scales. They also respond to regional climate risks tied to water.<a href="#cite_note-Murgatroyd-2021-5">[5]</a>: 58

Seasonal climate and hydrological forecasts can be useful to prepare for and reduce water security risks. They are especially useful if people can apply them at the local scale.<a href="#cite_note-69">[69]</a><a href="#cite_note-70">[70]</a> Applying knowledge of how climate anomalies relate to each other over long distances can improve seasonal forecasts for specific regions. These <a href="Teleconnection" title="Teleconnection">teleconnections</a> are correlations between patterns of rainfall, temperature, and wind speed between distant areas. They are caused by large-scale ocean and <a href="Atmospheric_circulation" title="Atmospheric circulation">atmospheric circulation</a>.<a href="#cite_note-71">[71]</a><a href="#cite_note-Taye-2021-72">[72]</a>

In regions where rainfall varies with the seasons and from year to year, water managers would like to have more accurate seasonal weather forecasts. In some locations the onset of seasonal rainfall is particularly hard to predict. This is because aspects of the <a href="Climate_system" title="Climate system">climate system</a> are difficult to describe with mathematical models. For example, the long rains in East Africa which fall March to May have been difficult to simulate with <a href="Climate_model" title="Climate model">climate models</a>. When climate models work well they can produce useful seasonal forecasts.<a href="#cite_note-Dyer-2021-73">[73]</a> One reason for these difficulties is the complex <a href="Topography" title="Topography">topography</a> of the area.<a href="#cite_note-Dyer-2021-73">[73]</a> Improved understanding of atmospheric processes may allow climate scientists to provide more relevant and localized information to water managers on a seasonal timescale. They could also provide more detailed predictions for the effects of climate change on a longer timeframe.<a href="#cite_note-74">[74]</a>One example would be seasonal forecasts of rainfall in Ethiopia's <a href="Awash_River" title="Awash River">Awash river basin</a>. These may become more accurate by understanding better how <a href="Sea_surface_temperature" title="Sea surface temperature">sea surface temperatures</a> in different ocean regions relate to rainfall patterns in this river basin.<a href="#cite_note-Taye-2021-72">[72]</a> At a larger regional scale, a better understanding of the relationship between <a href="Pressure_system" title="Pressure system">pressure systems</a> in the <a href="Indian_Ocean" title="Indian Ocean">Indian Ocean</a> and the South Atlantic on the one hand, and wind speeds and rainfall patterns in the <a href="Horn_of_Africa" title="Horn of Africa">Greater Horn of Africa</a> on the other hand would be helpful. This kind of scientific analysis may contribute to improved representation of this region in climate models to assist development planning.<a href="#cite_note-Dyer-2022-76">[76]</a> It could also guide people when they plan water allocation in the river basin or prepare emergency response plans for future events of water scarcity and flooding.<a href="#cite_note-Taye-2021-72">[72]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Infrastructure">Infrastructure</h4></div>

<a href="Water_supply_network" title="Water supply network">Water infrastructure</a> serves to access, store, regulate, move and conserve water. Several assets carry out these functions. Natural assets are lakes, rivers, wetlands, aquifers, springs. Engineered assets are bulk water management infrastructure, such as dams.<a href="#cite_note-Grey-2007-2">[2]</a> Examples include:<a href="#cite_note-Sadoff-2020-1">[1]</a>

<ul><li>Improved water storage: using natural water storage systems such as aquifers and wetlands or built infrastructure such as storage tanks and dams.</li>

<li>Using new water sources to add to the existing water supplies. This can be done through <a href="Reclaimed_water" title="Reclaimed water">water reuse</a>, <a href="Desalination" title="Desalination">desalination</a>, <a href="Rainwater_harvesting" title="Rainwater harvesting">rainwater harvesting</a> and <a href="Groundwater_abstraction" class="mw-redirect" title="Groundwater abstraction">groundwater pumping</a>.</li>

<li><a href="Levee" title="Levee">Embankments</a> (or levee or dike) for <a href="Flood_control" class="mw-redirect" title="Flood control">flood protection</a>.</li></ul>

Public and private spending on water infrastructure and supporting institutions must be well balanced. They are likely to evolve over time.<a href="#cite_note-Grey-2007-2">[2]</a> This is important to avoid unplanned social and environmental costs from building new facilities.

For example, in the case of Africa, investments into groundwater use is an option to increase water security and for <a href="Climate_change_adaptation" title="Climate change adaptation">climate change adaptation</a>.<a href="#cite_note-77">[77]</a> Water security in African countries could benefit from the distribution of groundwater storage and recharge on the continent. Recharge is a process where water moves to groundwater. Many countries that have low recharge have substantial groundwater storage. Countries with low storage typically have high, regular recharge.<a href="#cite_note-MacDonald-2021-78">[78]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Consideration_of_scales">Consideration of scales</h3></div>

People manage water security risks at different spatial scales. These range from the household to community, town, city, basin and region.<a href="#cite_note-REACH-2020-3">[3]</a>: 11 At the local scale, actors include county governments, schools, water user groups, local water providers and the private sector. At the next larger scale there are <a href="Drainage_basin" title="Drainage basin">basin</a> and national level actors. These actors help to identify any constraints with regards to policy, institutions and investments. Lastly, there are global actors such as the <a href="World_Bank" class="mw-redirect" title="World Bank">World Bank</a>, <a href="UNICEF" title="UNICEF">UNICEF</a>, <a href="Foreign%2C_Commonwealth_and_Development_Office" title="Foreign, Commonwealth and Development Office">FCDO</a>, <a href="World_Health_Organization" title="World Health Organization">WHO</a> and <a href="United_States_Agency_for_International_Development" title="United States Agency for International Development">USAID</a>. They help to develop suitable service delivery models.<a href="#cite_note-REACH-2020-3">[3]</a>: 11

The <a href="Physical_geography" title="Physical geography">physical geography</a> of a country shows the correct scale that planners should use for managing water security risks. Even within a country, the hydrologic environment may vary a lot. See for example the <a href="#Ethiopia">variations in seasonal rainfall across Ethiopia</a>.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Reducing_inequalities_in_water_security">Reducing inequalities in water security</h3></div>

Inequalities with regards to water security within a society have structural and historical roots. They can affect people at different scales. These range from the household, to the community, town, river basin or the region.<a href="#cite_note-REACH-2020-3">[3]</a>: 20 High risk social groups and regions can be identified during political debates but are often ignored. Water inequality is often tied to gender in low-income countries. At the household level, women are often the "water managers". But they have limited choices over water and related issues.<a href="#cite_note-REACH-2020-3">[3]</a>: 21

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Improving_climate_resilience_of_water_and_sanitation_services">Improving climate resilience of water and sanitation services</h3></div>

Many institutions are working to develop WASH services that are resilient to climate.<a href="#cite_note-REACH-2020-3">[3]</a>: 27, 37 <a href="#cite_note-79">[79]</a><a href="#cite_note-80">[80]</a><div class="excerpt-block"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable dablink excerpt-hat selfref">This section is an excerpt from <a href="WASH#Improving_climate_resilience" title="WASH">WASH § Improving climate resilience</a>.[<a class="external text external" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=WASH&action=edit#Improving_climate_resilience">edit</a>]</div><div class="excerpt">

Climate-resilient water services (or climate-resilient WASH) are services that provide access to high quality drinking water during all seasons and even during extreme weather events.<a href="#cite_note-WASH_Katrina20222-81">[81]</a> <a href="Climate_resilience" title="Climate resilience">Climate resilience</a> in general is the ability to recover from, or to mitigate vulnerability to, climate-related shocks such as floods and droughts.<a href="#cite_note-WASH_:25-82">[82]</a> Climate resilient development has become the new paradigm for <a href="Sustainable_development" title="Sustainable development">sustainable development</a>. This concept thus influences theory and practice across all sectors globally.<a href="#cite_note-WASH_:25-82">[82]</a> This is particularly true in the <a href="Water_sector" class="mw-redirect" title="Water sector">water sector</a>, since water security is closely connected to climate change. On every continent, governments are now adopting policies for climate resilient economies. International frameworks such as the <a href="Paris_Agreement" title="Paris Agreement">Paris Agreement</a> and the <a href="Sustainable_Development_Goals" title="Sustainable Development Goals">Sustainable Development Goals</a> are drivers for such initiatives.<a href="#cite_note-WASH_:25-82">[82]</a>

Several activities can improve water security and increase resilience to <a href="Climate_risk" title="Climate risk">climate risks</a>: Carrying out a detailed analysis of climate risk to make <a href="Climate_Information_Service" title="Climate Information Service">climate information</a> relevant to specific users; developing metrics for monitoring climate resilience in water systems (this will help to track progress and guide investments for water security); and using new institutional models that improve water security.<a href="#cite_note-WASH_:113-83">[83]</a>

Climate resilient policies can be useful for allocating water, especially when regional water availability may change in future. This requires a good understanding of the current and future hydroclimatic situation. For example, a more accurate prediction of future changes in climate variability leads to a better response to their possible impacts.<a href="#cite_note-WASH_:22-84">[84]</a>

To build climate resilience into water systems, people need to have access to climate information that is appropriate for their local context.<a href="#cite_note-WASH_:113-83">[83]</a>: 59 Climate information products are useful if they cover a wide range of temporal and spatial scales, and provide information on regional water-related climate risks.<a href="#cite_note-WASH_:113-83">[83]</a>: 58 For example, government staff need easy access to climate information to achieve better water management.<a href="#cite_note-WASH_:22-84">[84]</a>

Four important activities to achieve climate resilient WASH services include: First, a risk analysis is performed to look at possible implications of extreme weather events as well as preventive actions.<a href="#cite_note-WASH_:27-85">[85]</a>: 4 Such preventive actions can include for example elevating the infrastructure to be above expected flood levels. Secondly, managers assess the scope for reducing <a href="Greenhouse_gas_emissions" title="Greenhouse gas emissions">greenhouse gas emissions</a> and put in place suitable options, e.g. using more <a href="Renewable_energy" title="Renewable energy">renewable energy</a> sources. Thirdly, the water utilities ensure that water sources and sanitation services are reliable at all times during the year, also during times of droughts and floods. Finally, the management and service delivery models are strengthened so that they can withstand a crisis.<a href="#cite_note-WASH_:27-85">[85]</a>: 5

To put climate resilience into practice and to engage better with politicians, the following guide questions are useful: "resilience of what, to what, for whom, over what time frame, by whom and at what scale?".<a href="#cite_note-WASH_:25-82">[82]</a> For example, "resilience of what?" means thinking beyond infrastructure but to also include resilience of water resources, local institutions and water users. Another example is that "resilience for whom?" speaks about reducing vulnerability and preventing negative developments: Some top-down interventions that work around power and politics may undermine <a href="Traditional_knowledge" title="Traditional knowledge">indigenous knowledge</a> and compromise community resilience.<a href="#cite_note-WASH_:25-82">[82]</a></div></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Measurement_tools">Measurement tools</h2></div>

There is no single way to measure water security.<a href="#cite_note-Caretta-2022-8">[8]</a>: 562 There are no standard indicators to measure water security. That is because it is a concept that focuses on outcomes.<a href="#cite_note-Sadoff-2020-1">[1]</a> The outcomes that are regard as important can change depending on the context and stakeholders.

Instead, it is common to compare relative levels of water security by using metrics for certain aspects of water security.<a href="#cite_note-Caretta-2022-8">[8]</a>: 562 For example, the Global Water Security Index includes metrics on:

<ul><li>availability (water scarcity index, drought index, groundwater depletion);</li>

<li>accessibility to water services (access to <a href="Sanitation" title="Sanitation">sanitation</a> and drinking water);</li>

<li>safety and quality (water quality index, global flood frequency);</li>

<li>management (<a href="World_Governance_Index" title="World Governance Index">World Governance Index</a>, transboundary legal framework, transboundary political tension).<a href="#cite_note-Gain-2016-86">[86]</a></li></ul>

Scientists have been working on ways to measure water security at a variety of levels. The metrics roughly fall into two groups. There are those that are based on experiences versus metrics that are based on resources. The former mainly focus on measuring the experiences of households and human well-being. Meanwhile the latter focuses on the amount of

available freshwater.<a href="#cite_note-Octavianti-2021-9">[9]</a>

The Household Water Insecurity Experiences (HWISE) Scale measures several components of water insecurity at the household level. These include adequacy, reliability, accessibility and safety.<a href="#cite_note-Young-2019-87">[87]</a> This scale can help to identify vulnerable subpopulations and ensure resources are allocated to those in need. It can also measure how effective of water policies and projects are.<a href="#cite_note-Young-2019-87">[87]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Global_estimates">Global estimates</h2></div>

The <a href="IPCC_Sixth_Assessment_Report" title="IPCC Sixth Assessment Report">IPCC Sixth Assessment Report</a> summarises the current and future water security trends. It says that increasing weather and extreme climate events have led to acute <a href="Food_security" title="Food security">food insecurity</a> and reduced water security for millions of people. The largest impacts are seen in Africa, Asia, Central and South America, Small Islands and the Arctic.<a href="#cite_note-IPCC-2022-10">[10]</a>: 9

The same report predicted that global warming of 2 °C would expose roughly 1-4 billion people to water stress. This would depend on regional patterns of climate change and the socio-economic scenarios.<a href="#cite_note-Caretta-2022-8">[8]</a>: 558 On <a href="Water_scarcity" title="Water scarcity">water scarcity</a> which is one factor in water insecurity the report finds 1.5-2.5 billion people live water scarce areas.<a href="#cite_note-IPCC-2022-10">[10]</a>: 660

Water scarcity and water security are not always equal. There are regions with high water security even though they also experience water scarcity. Examples are parts of the <a href="United_States" title="United States">United States</a>, <a href="Australia" title="Australia">Australia</a> and <a href="Southern_Europe" title="Southern Europe">Southern Europe</a>. This is due to efficient water services that have a high level of safety, quality, and accessibility.<a href="#cite_note-Gain-2016-86">[86]</a><a href="#cite_note-Caretta-2022-8">[8]</a>: 562 However, even in those regions, groups such as <a href="Indigenous_peoples" title="Indigenous peoples">Indigenous peoples</a> tend to have less <a href="Drinking_water" title="Drinking water">access to water</a> and face water insecurity at times.<a href="#cite_note-Caretta-2022-8">[8]</a>: 562

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Country_examples">Country examples</h2></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Bangladesh">Bangladesh</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Bangladesh" title="Water supply and sanitation in Bangladesh">Water supply and sanitation in Bangladesh</a> and <a href="Climate_change_in_Bangladesh" title="Climate change in Bangladesh">Climate change in Bangladesh</a></div>

<div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:402px;max-width:402px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:199px;max-width:199px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:130px;overflow:hidden"></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:199px;max-width:199px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:130px;overflow:hidden"></div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flex"><div class="thumbcaption">Too much water can also cause water insecurity. Left: Flooding in Bangladesh; right: People on an island in a flooded river in Bangladesh.</div></div></div></div>

Risks to water security in Bangladesh include:<a href="#cite_note-Murgatroyd-2021-5">[5]</a>: 45

<ul><li>natural hazards that related to the climate (<a href="Climate_hazard" class="mw-redirect" title="Climate hazard">climate hazards</a>)</li>

<li>some impacts of <a href="Urbanization" title="Urbanization">urbanization</a></li>

<li><a href="Effects_of_climate_change" title="Effects of climate change">impacts from climate change</a> such as changes to precipitation patterns and sea level rise.</li></ul>

The country experiences water security risks in the capital Dhaka as well as in the coastal region.<a href="#cite_note-Murgatroyd-2021-5">[5]</a> In Dhaka, <a href="Monsoon" title="Monsoon">monsoonal</a> pulses can lead to <a href="Urban_flooding" title="Urban flooding">urban flooding</a>. This can pollute the water supply.<a href="#cite_note-Murgatroyd-2021-5">[5]</a> A number of processes and events cause water risks for about 20 million people in the coastal regions. These include <a href="Groundwater#Climate_change" title="Groundwater">aquifers that are getting saltier</a>, seasonal water scarcity, <a href="Fecal%E2%80%93oral_route" title="Fecal–oral route">fecal contamination</a>, and flooding from the monsoon and from storm surges due to cyclones.<a href="#cite_note-Murgatroyd-2021-5">[5]</a>: 64

Different types of floods occur in coastal Bangladesh. They are: river floods, tidal floods and storm surge floods due to tropical cyclones.<a href="#cite_note-Borgomeo-2018b-88">[88]</a> These floods can damage drinking water infrastructure. They can also lead to reduced water quality as well as losses in agricultural and fishery yields.<a href="#cite_note-Murgatroyd-2021-5">[5]</a> There is a link between water insecurity and poverty in the low-lying areas in the <a href="Geography_of_West_Bengal" title="Geography of West Bengal">Ganges-Brahmaputra tidal delta plain</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Borgomeo-2018b-88">[88]</a> Those low-lying areas are embanked areas in coastal Bangladesh.

The government has various programs to reduce risks for people who live in coastal communities. These programs also lead to increases in economic wellbeing.<a href="#cite_note-Borgomeo-2018b-88">[88]</a> Examples include the "Coastal Embankment Improvement Project"<a href="#cite_note-89">[89]</a> by World Bank in 2013, the BlueGold project<a href="#cite_note-90">[90]</a> in 2012, UNICEF's "Managed Aquifer Recharge" program in 2014 and the <a href="Bangladesh_Delta_Plan" title="Bangladesh Delta Plan">Bangladesh Delta Plan</a> in 2014.<a href="#cite_note-Borgomeo-2018b-88">[88]</a> Such investments in water security aim to increase the continued use and upkeep of water facilities. They can help coastal communities to escape the poverty trap caused by water insecurity.<a href="#cite_note-Borgomeo-2018b-88">[88]</a>

A program called the "SafePani framework" focuses on how the state shares risks and responsibilities with service providers and communities.<a href="#cite_note-Murgatroyd-2021-5">[5]</a> This program aims to help decision makers to address climate risks through a process called climate resilient water safety planning.<a href="#cite_note-Murgatroyd-2021-5">[5]</a> The program is a cooperation between <a href="UNICEF" title="UNICEF">UNICEF</a> and the Government of Bangladesh.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ethiopia">Ethiopia</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="Climate_change_in_Ethiopia" title="Climate change in Ethiopia">Climate change in Ethiopia</a> and <a href="Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Ethiopia" title="Water supply and sanitation in Ethiopia">Water supply and sanitation in Ethiopia</a></div>

Ethiopia has two main <a href="Wet_season" title="Wet season">wet seasons</a> per year. It rains in the spring and summer. These seasonal patterns of rainfall vary a lot across the country.<a href="#cite_note-Taye-2021-72">[72]</a><a href="#cite_note-Abebe-2010-92">[92]</a> Western Ethiopia has a seasonal rainfall pattern that is similar to the <a href="Sahel" title="Sahel">Sahel</a>. It has rainfall from February to November (which is decreasing to the north), and has peak rainfall from June to September. Southern Ethiopia has a rainfall pattern similar to the one in East Africa. There are two distinct wet seasons every year, February to May, and October to November.<a href="#cite_note-onlinelibrary.wiley.com-75">[75]</a><a href="#cite_note-Abebe-2010-92">[92]</a> Central and eastern Ethiopia has some rainfall between February and November, with a smaller peak in rainfall from March to May and a second higher peak from June to September.<a href="#cite_note-Abebe-2010-92">[92]</a>

In 2022 Ethiopia had one of the most severe <a href="La_Ni%C3%B1a" class="mw-redirect" title="La Niña">La Niña</a>-induced droughts in the last forty years. It came about due to four consecutive rainy seasons which did not produce enough rain.<a href="#cite_note-reliefweb-2022-93">[93]</a> This drought increased water insecurity for more than 8 million <a href="Pastoralism" title="Pastoralism">pastoralists</a> and <a href="Pastoral_farming" class="mw-redirect" title="Pastoral farming">agro-pastoralists</a> in the <a href="Somali_Region" title="Somali Region">Somali</a>, <a href="Oromia" title="Oromia">Oromia</a>, <a href="Southern_Nations%2C_Nationalities%2C_and_Peoples'_Region" title="Southern Nations, Nationalities, and Peoples' Region">SNNP</a> and <a href="South_West_Ethiopia_Peoples'_Region" title="South West Ethiopia Peoples' Region">South-West regions</a>. About 7.2 million people needed <a href="Aid" title="Aid">food aid</a>, and 4.4 million people needed help to access water. Food prices have increased a lot due to the drought conditions. Many people in the affected area have experienced food shortages due to the water insecurity situation.<a href="#cite_note-reliefweb-2022-93">[93]</a>

In the <a href="Awash_River" title="Awash River">Awash basin</a> in central Ethiopia floods and droughts are common. Agriculture in the basin is mainly <a href="Rainfed_agriculture" title="Rainfed agriculture">rainfed</a> (without irrigation systems). This applies to around 98% of total cropland as of 2012. So changes in rainfall patterns due to climate change will reduce economic activities in the basin.<a href="#cite_note-Borgomeo-2018a-94">[94]</a> Rainfall shocks have a direct impact on agriculture. A rainfall decrease in the Awash basin could lead to a 5% decline in the basin's overall GDP. The agricultural GDP could even drop by as much as 10%.<a href="#cite_note-Borgomeo-2018a-94">[94]</a>

Partnerships with the Awash Basin Development Office (AwBDO) and the Ministry of Water, Irrigation and Electricity (MoWIE) have led to the development of new models of water allocation in the Awash basin. This can improve water security for the 18.3 million residents in the basin. With this they will have enough water for their domestic, irrigation and industry needs.<a href="#cite_note-Murgatroyd-2021-5">[5]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Kenya">Kenya</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Kenya" title="Water supply and sanitation in Kenya">Water supply and sanitation in Kenya</a> and <a href="Climate_change_in_Kenya" title="Climate change in Kenya">Climate change in Kenya</a></div>

Kenya ranked 46th out of 54 African countries in an assessment of water security in 2022.<a href="#cite_note-Oluwasanya-2022-95">[95]</a> Major water security issues in Kenya include drinking water safety, water scarcity, lack of water storage, poor wastewater treatment, and drought and flood.<a href="#cite_note-Oluwasanya-2022-95">[95]</a> Large-scale climate patterns influence the rainfall patterns in East Africa. Such climate patterns include the <a href="El_Ni%C3%B1o%E2%80%93Southern_Oscillation" title="El Niño–Southern Oscillation">El Niño–Southern Oscillation</a> (ENSO) and the <a href="Indian_Ocean_Dipole" title="Indian Ocean Dipole">Indian Ocean Dipole</a> (IOD). Cooling in the Pacific Ocean during the La Niña phase of ENSO is linked with dryer conditions in Kenya. This can lead to drought as it did in 2016-17. On the other hand a warmer Western Indian Ocean due to a strong positive Indian Ocean Dipole caused extreme flooding in Kenya in 2020.<a href="#cite_note-96">[96]</a>

Around 38% of Kenya's population and 70% of its livestock live in arid and semi-arid lands.<a href="#cite_note-97">[97]</a> These areas have low rainfall which varies a lot from one season to the next. This means that surface water and groundwater resources vary a lot by location and time of year. Residents in Northern Kenya are seeing increased changes in rainfall patterns and more frequent droughts.<a href="#cite_note-Njoka-2016-98">[98]</a> These changes affect livelihoods in this region where people have been living as migratory herders. They are used to herding livestock with a seasonal migration pattern.<a href="#cite_note-Njoka-2016-98">[98]</a> More people are now settling in small urban centers, and there is increasing conflict over water and other resources.<a href="#cite_note-99">[99]</a> Water insecurity is a feature of life for both settled and nomadic pastoralists. Women and children bear the burden for fetching water.<a href="#cite_note-100">[100]</a>

Groundwater sources! have great potential to improve water supply in Kenya. However, the use of groundwater is limited by low quality and knowledge, pumping too much groundwater, known as <a href="Overdrafting" title="Overdrafting">overdrafting</a>, and salt water intrusion along coastal areas.<a href="#cite_note-101">[101]</a><a href="#cite_note-102">[102]</a> Another challenge is the upkeep of groundwater infrastructure, mainly in rural areas.<a href="#cite_note-103">[103]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ukraine">Ukraine</h3></div>

Russian forces have destroyed one-third of Ukraine’s freshwater storage since February 2022 to 2024.<a href="#cite_note-Hapich_100167-104">[104]</a> Potable, industrial and irrigation water supplies have been cut across the south and east of the country. Occupation of the southern and eastern regions of Ukraine and destruction of the Kakhovka Reservoir have all but terminated irrigation. Irrigated cereals and technical crops are now unprofitable, even where practicable – not least because of the difficulty of selling and exporting the produce. The strategic development of irrigation should be based on optimal technology to minimize water costs and redesign cultivation systems, for example, by drip irrigation, diverse crop rotations and focus on vegetable farming, orchards, and viticulture.<a href="#cite_note-Hapich_100167-104">[104]</a><a href="#cite_note-105">[105]</a>

<ul><li><a href="Global_Water_Security_%26_Sanitation_Partnership" title="Global Water Security & Sanitation Partnership">Global Water Security & Sanitation Partnership</a> – World Bank trust fund</li>

<li><a href="Human_right_to_water_and_sanitation" title="Human right to water and sanitation">Human right to water and sanitation</a></li>

<li><a href="Water_footprint" title="Water footprint">Water footprint</a> – Extent of water use in relation to consumption by people</li>

<li><a href="Water_security_in_Australia" title="Water security in Australia">Water security in Australia</a></li>

<li><a href="Water_security_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Water security in the United States">Water security in the United States</a></li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div>

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<li id="cite_note-99"><a href="#cite_ref-99">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFReidFernández-GiménezGalvin2014" class="citation journal cs1">Reid, Robin S.; Fernández-Giménez, María E.; Galvin, Kathleen A. (2014-10-17). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1146%2Fannurev-environ-020713-163329">"Dynamics and Resilience of Rangelands and Pastoral Peoples Around the Globe"</a>. Annual Review of Environment and Resources. 39 (1): 217–242. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1146%2Fannurev-environ-020713-163329">10.1146/annurev-environ-020713-163329</a>. <a href="ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1543-5938">1543-5938</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:154486594">154486594</a>.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-100"><a href="#cite_ref-100">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFBalfourObandoGohil2020" class="citation journal cs1">Balfour, Nancy; Obando, Joy; Gohil, Deepali (2020-01-01). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://practicalactionpublishing.com/article/2465/dimensions-of-water-insecurity-in-pastoralist-households-in-kenya">"Dimensions of water insecurity in pastoralist households in Kenya"</a>. Waterlines. 39 (1): 24–43. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3362%2F1756-3488.19-00016">10.3362/1756-3488.19-00016</a>. <a href="ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0262-8104">0262-8104</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:216343833">216343833</a>.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-101"><a href="#cite_ref-101">^</a> Barasa M, Crane E, Upton K, Ó Dochartaigh BÉ and Bellwood-Howard I. 2018. Africa Groundwater Atlas: Hydrogeology of Kenya. British Geological Survey. Accessed [27 January 2023]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://earthwise.bgs.ac.uk/index.php/Hydrogeology_of_Kenya#Groundwater_use">https://earthwise.bgs.ac.uk/index.php/Hydrogeology_of_Kenya#Groundwater_use</a>

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<li id="cite_note-102"><a href="#cite_ref-102">^</a> Mumma, Albert; Lane, Michael; Kairu, Edward; Tuinhof, Albert; Hirji, Rafik. 2011. Kenya Groundwater Governance Case Study. Water papers. Washington, DC. <a href="World_Bank" class="mw-redirect" title="World Bank">World Bank</a>. License: CC BY 3.0 IGO. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/handle/10986/17227">https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/handle/10986/17227</a>

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<li id="cite_note-103"><a href="#cite_ref-103">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFFosterHope2016" class="citation journal cs1">Foster, Tim; Hope, Rob (2016-10-01). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0743016716302029">"A multi-decadal and social-ecological systems analysis of community waterpoint payment behaviours in rural Kenya"</a>. Journal of Rural Studies. 47: 85–96. <a href="Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2016JRurS..47...85F">2016JRurS..47...85F</a>. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.jrurstud.2016.07.026">10.1016/j.jrurstud.2016.07.026</a>. <a href="ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0743-0167">0743-0167</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:156255059">156255059</a>.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-Hapich_100167-104">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Hapich_100167_104-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hapich_100167_104-1">b</a> <cite id="CITEREFHapichNovitskyiOnopriienkoDent2024" class="citation journal cs1">Hapich, Hennadii; Novitskyi, Roman; Onopriienko, Dmytro; Dent, David; Roubik, Hynek (2024-04-01). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2468312424000038">"Water security consequences of the Russia-Ukraine war and the post-war outlook"</a>. Water Security. 21: 100167. <a href="Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2024WatSe..2100167H">2024WatSe..2100167H</a>. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.wasec.2024.100167">10.1016/j.wasec.2024.100167</a>. <a href="ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2468-3124">2468-3124</a>.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-105"><a href="#cite_ref-105">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFGleickVyshnevskyiShevchuk2023" class="citation journal cs1">Gleick, Peter; Vyshnevskyi, Viktor; Shevchuk, Serhii (October 2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1029%2F2023EF003910">"Rivers and Water Systems as Weapons and Casualties of the Russia-Ukraine War"</a>. Earth's Future. 11 (10). <a href="Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2023EaFut..1103910G">2023EaFut..1103910G</a>. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1029%2F2023EF003910">10.1029/2023EF003910</a>. <a href="ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2328-4277">2328-4277</a>.</cite>

</li>

</ol></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div>

<ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.watersecuritynetwork.org">International Water Security Network</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.journals.elsevier.com/water-security">Water Security</a> (an open source journal that started in 2017)</li></ul>

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</style><div id="Population682" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Population" title="Population">Population</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Major topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Demographics_of_the_world" title="Demographics of the world">Demographics of the world</a></li>

<li><a href="Demographic_transition" title="Demographic transition">Demographic transition</a></li>

<li><a href="Estimates_of_historical_world_population" title="Estimates of historical world population">Estimates of historical world population</a></li>

<li><a href="Population_growth" title="Population growth">Population growth</a></li>

<li><a href="Population_momentum" title="Population momentum">Population momentum</a></li>

<li><a href="Human_population_projections" title="Human population projections">Human population projections</a></li>

<li><a href="World_population" title="World population">World population</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="Population_biology" title="Population biology">Population biology</a></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Population_decline" title="Population decline">Population decline</a></li>

<li><a href="Population_density" title="Population density">Population density</a>

<ul><li><a href="Physiological_density" title="Physiological density">Physiological density</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Population_dynamics" title="Population dynamics">Population dynamics</a></li>

<li><a href="Population_model" title="Population model">Population model</a></li>

<li><a href="Population_pyramid" title="Population pyramid">Population pyramid</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="Population_ecology" title="Population ecology">Population ecology</a></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Biocapacity" title="Biocapacity">Biocapacity</a></li>

<li><a href="Carrying_capacity" title="Carrying capacity">Carrying capacity</a></li>

<li><a href="Kaya_identity" title="Kaya identity">Kaya identity</a></li>

<li><a href="Malthusian_growth_model" title="Malthusian growth model">Malthusian growth model</a></li>

<li><a href="Overshoot_(population)" title="Overshoot (population)">Overshoot (population)</a></li>

<li><a href="World3" title="World3">World3 model</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Society and population</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Eugenics" title="Eugenics">Eugenics</a></li>

<li><a href="Dysgenics" title="Dysgenics">Dysgenics</a></li>

<li><a href="Human_overpopulation" title="Human overpopulation">Human overpopulation</a>

<ul><li><a href="Malthusianism" title="Malthusianism">Malthusian catastrophe</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Human_population_planning" title="Human population planning">Human population planning</a>

<ul><li><a href="Compulsory_sterilization" title="Compulsory sterilization">Compulsory sterilization</a></li>

<li><a href="Dependency_ratio" title="Dependency ratio">Dependency ratio</a></li>

<li><a href="Family_planning" title="Family planning">Family planning</a></li>

<li><a href="One-child_policy" title="One-child policy">One-child policy</a></li>

<li><a href="Two-child_policy" title="Two-child policy">Two-child policy</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Overconsumption_(economics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Overconsumption (economics)">Overconsumption</a></li>

<li><a href="Political_demography" title="Political demography">Political demography</a></li>

<li><a href="Population_ethics" title="Population ethics">Population ethics</a>

<ul><li><a href="Antinatalism" title="Antinatalism">Antinatalism</a></li>

<li><a href="Intergenerational_equity" title="Intergenerational equity">Intergenerational equity</a></li>

<li><a href="Mere_addition_paradox" title="Mere addition paradox">Mere addition paradox</a></li>

<li><a href="Natalism" title="Natalism">Natalism</a></li>

<li><a href="Non-identity_problem" class="mw-redirect" title="Non-identity problem">Non-identity problem</a></li>

<li><a href="Reproductive_rights" title="Reproductive rights">Reproductive rights</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Sustainable_population" title="Sustainable population">Sustainable population</a></li>

<li><a href="Zero_population_growth" title="Zero population growth">Zero population growth</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Publications</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;font-style:italic;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Population_and_Environment" title="Population and Environment">Population and Environment</a></li>

<li><a href="Population_and_Development_Review" title="Population and Development Review">Population and Development Review</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Population_and_housing_censuses_by_country" title="Population and housing censuses by country">Population and housing censuses by country</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_countries_by_dependency_ratio" title="List of countries by dependency ratio">Dependency ratio</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_largest_cities" title="List of largest cities">Largest cities</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_countries_by_number_of_births" title="List of countries by number of births">Number of births</a></li>

<li><a href="World_population_milestones" title="World population milestones">World population milestones</a>

<ul><li><a href="Day_of_Six_Billion" title="Day of Six Billion">6 billion</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_population_concern_organizations" title="List of population concern organizations">Population concern organizations</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Events and organizations</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="7_Billion_Actions" title="7 Billion Actions">7 Billion Actions</a></li>

<li><a href="Church_of_Euthanasia" title="Church of Euthanasia">Church of Euthanasia</a></li>

<li><a href="International_Conference_on_Population_and_Development" title="International Conference on Population and Development">International Conference on Population and Development</a></li>

<li><a href="Population_Action_International" title="Population Action International">Population Action International</a></li>

<li><a href="Population_Connection" title="Population Connection">Population Connection</a></li>

<li><a href="Population_Matters" title="Population Matters">Population Matters</a></li>

<li><a href="United_Nations_Population_Fund" title="United Nations Population Fund">United Nations Population Fund</a></li>

<li><a href="United_Nations_world_population_conferences" title="United Nations world population conferences">United Nations world population conferences</a></li>

<li><a href="Voluntary_Human_Extinction_Movement" title="Voluntary Human Extinction Movement">Voluntary Human Extinction Movement</a></li>

<li><a href="World_Population_Conference" title="World Population Conference">World Population Conference</a></li>

<li><a href="World_Population_Day" title="World Population Day">World Population Day</a></li>

<li><a href="World_Population_Foundation" title="World Population Foundation">World Population Foundation</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Bennett's_law" title="Bennett's law">Bennett's law</a></li>

<li><a href="Green_Revolution" title="Green Revolution">Green Revolution</a></li>

<li><a href="Human_impact_on_the_environment" title="Human impact on the environment">Human impact on the environment</a></li>

<li><a href="Human_migration" title="Human migration">Migration</a>

<ul><li><a href="Net_migration_rate" title="Net migration rate">Net migration rate</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Sustainability" title="Sustainability">Sustainability</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2"><div>

<ul><li> <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Human_populations" class="extiw external" title="commons:Category:Human populations">Commons</a></li>

<li> Category</li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

<div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Climate_change567" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Climate_change567" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Climate_change" title="Climate change">Climate change</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible expanded navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Overview567" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Overview</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Causes_of_climate_change" title="Causes of climate change">Causes of climate change</a></li>

<li><a href="Effects_of_climate_change" title="Effects of climate change">Effects of climate change</a></li>

<li><a href="Climate_change_mitigation" title="Climate change mitigation">Climate change mitigation</a></li>

<li><a href="Climate_change_adaptation" title="Climate change adaptation">Climate change adaptation</a></li>

<li>By country and region</li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Causes567" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Causes_of_climate_change" title="Causes of climate change">Causes</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">Overview</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Climate_system" title="Climate system">Climate system</a></li>

<li><a href="Greenhouse_effect" title="Greenhouse effect">Greenhouse effect</a> (<a href="Carbon_dioxide_in_Earth's_atmosphere" class="mw-redirect" title="Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere">Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere</a>)</li>

<li><a href="Scientific_consensus_on_climate_change" title="Scientific consensus on climate change">Scientific consensus on climate change</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">Sources</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Deforestation_and_climate_change" title="Deforestation and climate change">Deforestation</a></li>

<li><a href="Fossil_fuel" title="Fossil fuel">Fossil fuel</a></li>

<li><a href="Greenhouse_gas" title="Greenhouse gas">Greenhouse gases</a></li>

<li><a href="Greenhouse_gas_emissions" title="Greenhouse gas emissions">Greenhouse gas emissions</a>

<ul><li><a href="Carbon_accounting" title="Carbon accounting">Carbon accounting</a></li>

<li><a href="Carbon_footprint" title="Carbon footprint">Carbon footprint</a></li>

<li><a href="Carbon_leakage" title="Carbon leakage">Carbon leakage</a></li>

<li><a href="Greenhouse_gas_emissions_from_agriculture" title="Greenhouse gas emissions from agriculture">from agriculture</a></li>

<li><a href="Greenhouse_gas_emissions_from_wetlands" title="Greenhouse gas emissions from wetlands">from wetlands</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="World_energy_supply_and_consumption" title="World energy supply and consumption">World energy supply and consumption</a></li></ul>

<ul><li><a href="History_of_climate_change_policy_and_politics" title="History of climate change policy and politics">History of climate change policy and politics</a></li>

<li><a href="History_of_climate_change_science" title="History of climate change science">History of climate change science</a></li>

<li><a href="Svante_Arrhenius" title="Svante Arrhenius">Svante Arrhenius</a></li>

<li><a href="James_Hansen" title="James Hansen">James Hansen</a></li>

<li><a href="Charles_David_Keeling" title="Charles David Keeling">Charles David Keeling</a></li>

<li><a href="United_Nations_Climate_Change_conference" class="mw-redirect" title="United Nations Climate Change conference">United Nations Climate Change conferences</a></li>

<li>Years in climate change

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Effects_and_issues567" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Effects_of_climate_change" title="Effects of climate change">Effects and issues</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">Physical</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Abrupt_climate_change" title="Abrupt climate change">Abrupt climate change</a></li>

<li><a href="Anoxic_event" title="Anoxic event">Anoxic event</a></li>

<li><a href="Arctic_methane_emissions" title="Arctic methane emissions">Arctic methane emissions</a></li>

<li><a href="Arctic_sea_ice_decline" title="Arctic sea ice decline">Arctic sea ice decline</a></li>

<li><a href="Atlantic_meridional_overturning_circulation" title="Atlantic meridional overturning circulation">Atlantic meridional overturning circulation</a></li>

<li><a href="Drought" title="Drought">Drought</a></li>

<li><a href="Extreme_weather" title="Extreme weather">Extreme weather</a></li>

<li><a href="Flood" title="Flood">Flood</a>

<ul><li><a href="Coastal_flooding" title="Coastal flooding">Coastal flooding</a></li></ul></li>

<ul><li><a href="Marine_heatwave" title="Marine heatwave">Marine</a></li>

<li><a href="Urban_heat_island" title="Urban heat island">Urban heat island</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Effects_of_climate_change_on_oceans" title="Effects of climate change on oceans">Oceans</a>

<ul><li><a href="Ocean_acidification" title="Ocean acidification">acidification</a></li>

<li><a href="Ocean_deoxygenation" title="Ocean deoxygenation">deoxygenation</a></li>

<li><a href="Ocean_heat_content" title="Ocean heat content">heat content</a></li>

<li><a href="Sea_surface_temperature" title="Sea surface temperature">sea surface temperature</a></li>

<li><a href="Ocean_stratification" title="Ocean stratification">stratification</a></li>

<li><a href="Ocean_temperature" title="Ocean temperature">temperature</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Ozone_depletion" title="Ozone depletion">Ozone depletion</a></li>

<li><a href="Permafrost#Impacts_of_climate_change" title="Permafrost">Permafrost thaw</a></li>

<li><a href="Retreat_of_glaciers_since_1850" title="Retreat of glaciers since 1850">Retreat of glaciers since 1850</a></li>

<li><a href="Sea_level_rise" title="Sea level rise">Sea level rise</a></li>

<li><a href="Season_creep" title="Season creep">Season creep</a></li>

<li><a href="Climate_sensitivity" title="Climate sensitivity">Climate sensitivity</a></li>

<li><a href="Tipping_points_in_the_climate_system" title="Tipping points in the climate system">Tipping points in the climate system</a></li>

<li><a href="Tropical_cyclones_and_climate_change" title="Tropical cyclones and climate change">Tropical cyclones</a></li>

<li><a href="Effects_of_climate_change_on_the_water_cycle" title="Effects of climate change on the water cycle">Water cycle</a></li>

<li><a href="Climate_change_and_wildfires" class="mw-redirect" title="Climate change and wildfires">Wildfires</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">Flora and fauna</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Effects_of_climate_change_on_biomes" title="Effects of climate change on biomes">Biomes</a>

<ul><li><a href="Mass_mortality_event" title="Mass mortality event">Mass mortality event</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Climate_change_and_birds" title="Climate change and birds">Birds</a></li>

<li><a href="Extinction_risk_from_climate_change" title="Extinction risk from climate change">Extinction risk</a></li>

<li><a href="Forest_dieback" title="Forest dieback">Forest dieback</a></li>

<li><a href="Climate_change_and_invasive_species" title="Climate change and invasive species">Invasive species</a></li>

<li><a href="Human_impact_on_marine_life#Climate_change" title="Human impact on marine life">Marine life</a></li>

<li><a href="Effects_of_climate_change_on_plant_biodiversity" title="Effects of climate change on plant biodiversity">Plant biodiversity</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">Social and economic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Effects_of_climate_change_on_agriculture" title="Effects of climate change on agriculture">Agriculture</a>

<ul><li><a href="Effects_of_climate_change_on_livestock" title="Effects of climate change on livestock">Livestock</a></li>

<li><a href="Multiple_breadbasket_failure" title="Multiple breadbasket failure">Multi-breadbasket failure</a></li>

<li><a href="Climate_change_and_agriculture_in_the_United_States" title="Climate change and agriculture in the United States">In the United States</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Climate_change_and_children" title="Climate change and children">Children</a></li>

<li><a href="Climate_change_and_cities" title="Climate change and cities">Cities</a></li>

<li><a href="Climate_change_and_civilizational_collapse" title="Climate change and civilizational collapse">Civilizational collapse</a></li>

<li><a href="Climate_change_and_crime" title="Climate change and crime">Crime</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_areas_depopulated_due_to_climate_change" title="List of areas depopulated due to climate change">Depopulation of settlements</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_landmarks_destroyed_or_damaged_by_climate_change" title="List of landmarks destroyed or damaged by climate change">Destruction of cultural heritage</a></li>

<li><a href="Disability_and_climate_change" title="Disability and climate change">Disability</a></li>

<li><a href="Economic_analysis_of_climate_change" title="Economic analysis of climate change">Economic impacts</a>

<ul><li><a href="Climate_change_and_insurance_in_the_United_States" title="Climate change and insurance in the United States">U.S. insurance industry</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Climate_change_and_fisheries" title="Climate change and fisheries">Fisheries</a></li>

<li><a href="Climate_change_and_gender" title="Climate change and gender">Gender</a></li>

<li><a href="Effects_of_climate_change_on_human_health" title="Effects of climate change on human health">Health</a>

<ul><li><a href="Effects_of_climate_change_on_mental_health" title="Effects of climate change on mental health">Mental health</a></li>

<li><a href="Effects_of_climate_change_on_health_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Effects of climate change on health in the United Kingdom">In the United Kingdom</a></li>

<li><a href="Effects_of_climate_change_on_health_in_the_Philippines" title="Effects of climate change on health in the Philippines">In the Philippines</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Human_rights_and_climate_change" title="Human rights and climate change">Human rights</a></li>

<li><a href="Climate_change_and_Indigenous_peoples" class="mw-redirect" title="Climate change and Indigenous peoples">Indigenous peoples</a></li>

<li><a href="Climate_change_and_infectious_diseases" title="Climate change and infectious diseases">Infectious diseases</a></li>

<li><a href="Climate_migration" title="Climate migration">Migration</a></li>

<li><a href="Climate_change_and_poverty" title="Climate change and poverty">Poverty</a></li>

<li><a href="Psychological_impact_of_climate_change" title="Psychological impact of climate change">Psychological impacts</a></li>

<li><a href="Climate_security" title="Climate security">Security and conflict</a></li>

<li><a href="Urban_flooding" title="Urban flooding">Urban flooding</a></li>

<li><a href="Water_scarcity" title="Water scarcity">Water scarcity</a></li>

</ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">By country and region</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Climate_change_in_Africa" title="Climate change in Africa">Africa</a></li>

<li><a href="Climate_change_in_the_Americas" title="Climate change in the Americas">Americas</a></li>

<li><a href="Climate_change_in_Antarctica" title="Climate change in Antarctica">Antarctica</a></li>

<li><a href="Climate_change_in_the_Arctic" title="Climate change in the Arctic">Arctic</a></li>

<li><a href="Climate_change_in_Australia" title="Climate change in Australia">Australia</a></li>

<li><a href="Climate_change_in_the_Caribbean" title="Climate change in the Caribbean">Caribbean</a></li>

<li><a href="Climate_change_in_Europe" title="Climate change in Europe">Europe</a></li>

<li><a href="Climate_change_in_the_Middle_East_and_North_Africa" title="Climate change in the Middle East and North Africa">Middle East and North Africa</a></li>

<li><a href="Effects_of_climate_change_on_small_island_countries" title="Effects of climate change on small island countries">Small island countries</a></li>

<li>by individual country</li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Mitigation567" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Climate_change_mitigation" title="Climate change mitigation">Mitigation</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em"><a href="Economic_analysis_of_climate_change" title="Economic analysis of climate change">Economics and finance</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Carbon_budget" title="Carbon budget">Carbon budget</a></li>

<li><a href="Carbon_emission_trading" title="Carbon emission trading">Carbon emission trading</a></li>

<li><a href="Carbon_offsets_and_credits" title="Carbon offsets and credits">Carbon offsets and credits</a>

<ul><li><a href="Gold_Standard_(carbon_offset_standard)" title="Gold Standard (carbon offset standard)">Gold Standard (carbon offset standard)</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Carbon_price" title="Carbon price">Carbon price</a></li>

<li><a href="Carbon_tax" title="Carbon tax">Carbon tax</a></li>

<li><a href="Climate_debt" title="Climate debt">Climate debt</a></li>

<li><a href="Climate_finance" title="Climate finance">Climate finance</a></li>

<li><a href="Climate_risk_insurance" title="Climate risk insurance">Climate risk insurance</a></li>

<li><a href="Co-benefits_of_climate_change_mitigation" class="mw-redirect" title="Co-benefits of climate change mitigation">Co-benefits of climate change mitigation</a></li>

<li><a href="Economic_analysis_of_climate_change#Economics_of_climate_change_mitigation" title="Economic analysis of climate change">Economics of climate change mitigation</a></li>

<li><a href="Fossil_fuel_divestment" title="Fossil fuel divestment">Fossil fuel divestment</a></li>

<li><a href="Green_Climate_Fund" title="Green Climate Fund">Green Climate Fund</a></li>

<li><a href="Low-carbon_economy" title="Low-carbon economy">Low-carbon economy</a></li>

<li><a href="Net_zero_emissions" class="mw-redirect" title="Net zero emissions">Net zero emissions</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">Energy</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Carbon_capture_and_storage" title="Carbon capture and storage">Carbon capture and storage</a></li>

<li><a href="Energy_transition" title="Energy transition">Energy transition</a>

<ul><li><a href="Fossil_fuel_phase-out" title="Fossil fuel phase-out">Fossil fuel phase-out</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Nuclear_power" title="Nuclear power">Nuclear power</a></li>

<li><a href="Renewable_energy" title="Renewable energy">Renewable energy</a></li>

<li><a href="Sustainable_energy" title="Sustainable energy">Sustainable energy</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">Preserving and enhancing <a href="Carbon_sink" title="Carbon sink">carbon sinks</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Blue_carbon" title="Blue carbon">Blue carbon</a></li>

<li><a href="Carbon_dioxide_removal" title="Carbon dioxide removal">Carbon dioxide removal</a>

<ul><li><a href="Carbon_sequestration" title="Carbon sequestration">Carbon sequestration</a></li>

<li><a href="Direct_air_capture" title="Direct air capture">Direct air capture</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Carbon_farming" title="Carbon farming">Carbon farming</a></li>

<li><a href="Climate-smart_agriculture" title="Climate-smart agriculture">Climate-smart agriculture</a></li>

<li>Forest management

<ul><li><a href="Afforestation" title="Afforestation">afforestation</a></li>

<li><a href="Carbon_sequestration#Forestry" title="Carbon sequestration">forestry for carbon sequestration</a></li>

<li><a href="Reforestation" title="Reforestation">reforestation</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Land_use%2C_land-use_change%2C_and_forestry" title="Land use, land-use change, and forestry">Land use, land-use change, and forestry</a> (LULUCF and AFOLU)</li>

<li><a href="Nature-based_solutions" title="Nature-based solutions">Nature-based solutions</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Individual_action_on_climate_change" title="Individual action on climate change">Individual action on climate change</a></li>

<li><a href="Geoengineering" title="Geoengineering">Geoengineering</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Society_and_adaptation567" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Society and <a href="Climate_change_adaptation" title="Climate change adaptation">adaptation</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">Society</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Business_action_on_climate_change" title="Business action on climate change">Business action</a></li>

<li><a href="Climate_action" title="Climate action">Climate action</a></li>

<li><a href="Climate_emergency_declaration" title="Climate emergency declaration">Climate emergency declaration</a></li>

<li><a href="Climate_movement" title="Climate movement">Climate movement</a>

<ul><li><a href="School_Strike_for_Climate" class="mw-redirect" title="School Strike for Climate">School Strike for Climate</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Climate_change_denial" title="Climate change denial">Denial</a></li>

<li><a href="Ecological_grief" title="Ecological grief">Ecological grief</a></li>

<li><a href="Climate_governance" title="Climate governance">Governance</a></li>

<li><a href="Climate_justice" title="Climate justice">Justice</a></li>

<li><a href="Climate_change_litigation" title="Climate change litigation">Litigation</a></li>

<li><a href="Politics_of_climate_change" title="Politics of climate change">Politics</a></li>

<li><a href="Public_opinion_on_climate_change" title="Public opinion on climate change">Public opinion</a></li>

<li><a href="Women_in_climate_change" title="Women in climate change">Women</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em"><a href="Climate_change_adaptation" title="Climate change adaptation">Adaptation</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Climate_change_adaptation_strategies_on_the_German_coast" title="Climate change adaptation strategies on the German coast">Adaptation strategies on the German coast</a></li>

<li><a href="Adaptive_capacity" title="Adaptive capacity">Adaptive capacity</a></li>

<li><a href="Disaster_risk_reduction" title="Disaster risk reduction">Disaster risk reduction</a></li>

<li><a href="Ecosystem-based_adaptation" title="Ecosystem-based adaptation">Ecosystem-based adaptation</a></li>

<li><a href="Flood_control" class="mw-redirect" title="Flood control">Flood control</a></li>

<li><a href="Loss_and_damage_(climate_change)" title="Loss and damage (climate change)">Loss and damage</a></li>

<li><a href="Managed_retreat" title="Managed retreat">Managed retreat</a></li>

<li><a href="Nature-based_solutions" title="Nature-based solutions">Nature-based solutions</a></li>

<li><a href="Climate_resilience" title="Climate resilience">Resilience</a></li>

<li><a href="Climate_change_vulnerability" title="Climate change vulnerability">Vulnerability</a></li>

<li><a href="The_Adaptation_Fund" title="The Adaptation Fund">The Adaptation Fund</a></li>

<li><a href="National_Adaptation_Programme_of_Action" title="National Adaptation Programme of Action">National Adaptation Programme of Action</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em"><a href="Climate_communication" title="Climate communication">Communication</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Climate_Change_Performance_Index" title="Climate Change Performance Index">Climate Change Performance Index</a></li>

<li><a href="Climate_crisis" title="Climate crisis">Climate crisis (term)</a></li>

<li><a href="Climate_spiral" title="Climate spiral">Climate spiral</a></li>

<li><a href="Climate_change_education" title="Climate change education">Education</a></li>

<li><a href="Media_coverage_of_climate_change" title="Media coverage of climate change">Media coverage</a></li>

<li><a href="Climate_change_in_popular_culture" title="Climate change in popular culture">Popular culture depictions</a>

<li><a href="Climate_fiction" title="Climate fiction">fiction</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_climate_change_video_games" class="mw-redirect" title="List of climate change video games">video games</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Warming_stripes" title="Warming stripes">Warming stripes</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">International agreements</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Glasgow_Climate_Pact" title="Glasgow Climate Pact">Glasgow Climate Pact</a></li>

<li><a href="Kyoto_Protocol" title="Kyoto Protocol">Kyoto Protocol</a></li>

<li><a href="Paris_Agreement" title="Paris Agreement">Paris Agreement</a>

<ul><li><a href="Cooperative_Mechanisms_under_Article_6_of_the_Paris_Agreement" class="mw-redirect" title="Cooperative Mechanisms under Article 6 of the Paris Agreement">Cooperative Mechanisms under Article 6 of the Paris Agreement</a></li>

<li><a href="Nationally_determined_contribution" title="Nationally determined contribution">Nationally determined contributions</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Sustainable_Development_Goal_13" title="Sustainable Development Goal 13">Sustainable Development Goal 13</a></li>

<li><a href="United_Nations_Framework_Convention_on_Climate_Change" title="United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change">United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Background_and_theory567" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Background and theory</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">Measurements</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Global_surface_temperature" title="Global surface temperature">Global surface temperature</a></li>

<li><a href="Instrumental_temperature_record" class="mw-redirect" title="Instrumental temperature record">Instrumental temperature record</a></li>

<li><a href="Proxy_(climate)" title="Proxy (climate)">Proxy</a></li>

<li><a href="Satellite_temperature_measurement" title="Satellite temperature measurement">Satellite temperature measurement</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">Theory</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Albedo" title="Albedo">Albedo</a></li>

<li><a href="Carbon_cycle" title="Carbon cycle">Carbon cycle</a>

<ul><li><a href="Atmospheric_carbon_cycle" title="Atmospheric carbon cycle">atmospheric</a></li>

<li><a href="Biological_pump" title="Biological pump">biologic</a></li>

<li><a href="Oceanic_carbon_cycle" title="Oceanic carbon cycle">oceanic</a></li>

<li><a href="Permafrost_carbon_cycle" title="Permafrost carbon cycle">permafrost</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Carbon_sink" title="Carbon sink">Carbon sink</a></li>

<li><a href="Climate_sensitivity" title="Climate sensitivity">Climate sensitivity</a></li>

<li><a href="Climate_variability_and_change" title="Climate variability and change">Climate variability and change</a></li>

<li><a href="Cloud_feedback" title="Cloud feedback">Cloud feedback</a></li>

<li><a href="Cloud_forcing" class="mw-redirect" title="Cloud forcing">Cloud forcing</a>

<ul><li><a href="Fixed_anvil_temperature_hypothesis" title="Fixed anvil temperature hypothesis">Fixed anvil temperature hypothesis</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Cryosphere" title="Cryosphere">Cryosphere</a></li>

<li><a href="Earth's_energy_budget" title="Earth's energy budget">Earth's energy budget</a></li>

<li><a href="Extreme_event_attribution" title="Extreme event attribution">Extreme event attribution</a></li>

<li><a href="Climate_change_feedbacks" title="Climate change feedbacks">Feedbacks</a></li>

<li><a href="Global_warming_potential" title="Global warming potential">Global warming potential</a></li>

<li><a href="Illustrative_model_of_greenhouse_effect_on_climate_change" title="Illustrative model of greenhouse effect on climate change">Illustrative model of greenhouse effect on climate change</a></li>

<li><a href="Orbital_forcing" title="Orbital forcing">Orbital forcing</a></li>

<li><a href="Radiative_forcing" title="Radiative forcing">Radiative forcing</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">Research and modelling</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Climate_change_scenario" title="Climate change scenario">Climate change scenario</a></li>

<li><a href="Climate_model" title="Climate model">Climate model</a></li>

<li><a href="Coupled_Model_Intercomparison_Project" title="Coupled Model Intercomparison Project">Coupled Model Intercomparison Project</a></li>

<li><a href="Intergovernmental_Panel_on_Climate_Change" title="Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change">Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)</a>

<ul><li><a href="IPCC_Sixth_Assessment_Report" title="IPCC Sixth Assessment Report">IPCC Sixth Assessment Report</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Paleoclimatology" title="Paleoclimatology">Paleoclimatology</a></li>

<li><a href="Representative_Concentration_Pathway" title="Representative Concentration Pathway">Representative Concentration Pathway</a></li>

<li><a href="Shared_Socioeconomic_Pathways" title="Shared Socioeconomic Pathways">Shared Socioeconomic Pathways</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>

<ul><li> <a href="Portal%3AClimate_change" title="Portal:Climate change">Climate change portal</a></li>

<li> Category</li>

<li> <a href="Glossary_of_climate_change" title="Glossary of climate change">Glossary</a></li>

<li> <a href="Index_of_climate_change_articles" title="Index of climate change articles">Index</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

<div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7973735#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata746" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7973735#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata746" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Authority control databases </div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">International</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.worldcat.org/fast/1795729">FAST</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh2011003817">United States</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nli.org.il/en/authorities/987007527114905171">Israel</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lux.collections.yale.edu/view/concept/7b0ae69a-cb84-4a67-8cd2-8efe3b0863fb">Yale LUX</a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div><div><div class="zim-footer">

This article is issued from <a class="external text" title="Last edited on 2025-08-07" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/?title=Water_security&oldid=1304672121">Wikipedia</a>. The text is available under <a class="external text" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en">Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 4.0</a> unless otherwise noted. Additional terms may apply for the media files.

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